From the above, it can be seen that the appearance and image of lions gradually established in the ancient cognition during the Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, that is, the king of beasts with ferocity, majesty, strength, and thunderous roar. With the development of lion culture, people's acceptance of lions is also increasing. As recorded in the "Luoyang Jialan Ji", the capital city of the late Northern Wei Dynasty, Luoyang, had two archways, the White Elephant and the Lion, to the east of Yongqiao South Road. Place names (streets and alleys) related to lions have already appeared. According to the biography of Zong Que in the Book of Song, during the reign of Emperor Wen of Liu Song, the Liu Song army conquered Linyi (now central Vietnam). Fan Yang, the king of Linyi, came to resist the enemy with his attire and was surrounded by elephants. There was no limit in front and behind, and soldiers could not act as a barrier, "said Zong Que, the chief general of the Liu Song army. This indicates that during the same period, southerners also developed a certain understanding of lions.

Lion Culture during the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties

From the Sui and Tang dynasties to the Yuan dynasty, the lion culture in China gradually embarked on an independent development path, and lion culture gradually became a distinctive national culture with distinct characteristics. This period was an important stage in the development and gradual enrichment of traditional lion culture in China.

The development of lion dance in the Tang Dynasty is one of the representatives in this field. In the Tang Dynasty, there were eight palace music and dance pieces, including "Tai Ping Yue" and "Li Bu Ji". Among them, "Tai Ping Yue" adopted the folk lion dance. The Taiping Music is also known as the "Five Directions Teacher (Lion) Dance". The "Music Chronicles" in the "Old Book of Tang" records: "Shi (Lion) Zi, a wild beast, originated from the southwestern barbarian countries such as India and Shi (Lion) Zi. He was adorned with fur and lived in it, looking like he was raised, tamed, and playful. The two of them held ropes and caressed each other, showing their practice. The five Shi (Lion) Zi each set up their own colors, and a hundred and forty people sang" Taiping Music "and danced with them." After entering the Tang court, lion dance received significant development and innovation. In addition to performing lion dance, there was also a large chorus singing "Taiping Music". Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi's "Xi Liang Ji" vividly and vividly depict the "lion dance". The former says, "The lion sways its light, its fur is colorful and vertical, while the Hu Teng dances with drunkenness, its muscles and bones are soft. Due to the preferences and advocacy of the upper echelons of the dynasty during this period, lion dance further became popular among the people and gradually separated from religion, becoming a completely secularized folk dance.

The first appearance of auspicious beasts and lions in the tombs of Tang Dynasty emperors and nobles was stone carving, usually placed in front of the tombs. The earliest one among them is the Tang Shunling Mausoleum located in Xianyang, Shaanxi, which is the tomb of Yang, the mother of Wu Zetian. There are several large stone carved lions in front of the tomb, which pioneered the use of lion shaped sculptures for imperial purposes. Since then, the arrangement of stone lions has become popular in the tombs of royalty, nobles, and bureaucrats.

By the Song Dynasty, lion dance had become quite popular among the people. In the painting "Hundred Sons Playing in Spring" by Su Hanchen of the Southern Song Dynasty, a group of children are depicted wearing a fake lion skin. The front child has half of their face exposed from the lion's mouth, while the back child bends down and hides inside the lion skin, supporting it and only showing their feet. There is a child holding a rope to lead the lion in front of it. There are three children next to them, and the one on the far right is playing a ball (cuju), which can also be seen as an embroidered ball in lion dance (i.e. lion rolling embroidered ball). In this picture, the ancient Chinese "football" cuju is integrated with lion dance. This vivid and interesting folk children's lion dance scene shows that lion dance has been popularized and basically established in the folk.

From the literature, it can be seen that the Song people also gained a new understanding of lions. The Song Dynasty's "Tan Yuan" records that during the Tianxi reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Northern Song (1017 – 1021), "lions were offered in the Western Regions and kept in imperial gardens, with a daily allowance of fifteen pounds of lamb meat. This is the first recorded mention of lion's appetite in existing literature. The Song people also had contact with alternative species among lions. According to Zhou Wei's "Guixin Zashi: Sequel", "Recently, there were tribute lions, the first type of tiger, with a body like a dog, blue and black. The officials thought they were not like the ones painted... What are the objects depicted by Tang Yan Liben in the paintings of Manjusri riding and secular costumes? Are the tribute offerings the usual lions and the Buddha riding on them the strange and evil lions?" Zhou Wei also recorded the initial measurement of the power of lions by people at that time: "It is said that lions are extremely powerful, and only when more than ten people hold them can they move." There is also a record in Song Mengyuan's "Dream of the Double Ninth Festival in Tokyo": "On the ninth day of the Double Ninth Festival, all temples have fasting meetings, except for Kaibao Temple. There is a lion club in Renwang Temple. All the monks sit on lions, practice and speak, and tourists are the most popular." At that time, the Shi family attracted tourists with the lion club to give lectures and teachings.

The lion culture of the Jin Dynasty also developed. The famous Lugou Bridge and the stone lions on its railing mentioned earlier are one of the representatives of Jin Dynasty architectural carvings.

In the Yuan Dynasty, lion dance was still popular among the court, officials, and the people. The Biography of He Sheng in the History of the Yuan Dynasty records an accident caused by a lion dance: During the reign of Emperor Yuan, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty, "hunted and returned one day, and Sheng (also known as Su Wei He Sheng) participated. The performer Meng Caicui performed a lion dance to welcome the driver. The public elephant was startled and fled, which could not be controlled. Sheng threw himself in front of the elephant. The one who arrived later cut off the vertical elephant and took advantage of the public opinion to find peace. Sheng retreated, created great achievements, and the emperor personally comforted him. This is the lion dance that scared the elephant that Yuan Shizu was riding on. Yuan people have also gained more observation of lions. According to Tao Zongyi's "Nan Cun Tiao Geng Lu", the Yuan court raised lions, tigers, leopards, bears, and other animals "each with chickens, ducks, wild game, and the like. All the animals inevitably used their claws to press and use their tongues to remove their feathers. However, lions used their palms to blow and blow, causing their feathers to fall off in a flurry, like washing. The majesty of the lion in his writing is evident.

During the Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties, Song, and Yuan dynasties, lions were also important objects for literati and poets to recite and sing hymns. Yu Shinan, a calligrapher and writer of the early Tang Dynasty, wrote the famous "Ode to the Lion". While lamenting the difficulties of transporting live lions over long distances at that time, this long poem describes in detail the morphological characteristics of lions: "There is a divine beast (lion) in the borderlands, which has been disturbed by retranslation." At the same time, it describes in detail the morphological features of lions: "... its appearance is characterized by tangled muscles and bones, unique postures, broad imagination and tail trimming. It is full of strength and softness, with claws and saws, hidden and sharp edges, with ears and feet, waiting for leisure to take advantage of the situation. At the same time, it vigorously licks its lips, suddenly comes and goes, with angry eyes and electric lights, making thunderous sounds. It pulls a tiger and swallows a Pixiu. The split rhinoceros splits into elephants, shattering its teeth and claws, and bending its snakes in its fingertips. If it is practiced, it will ravage the forest, and if it roars, the rivers will shake..." The dominance of a male lion leapt onto the paper. Tang Dynasty poet Niu Shangshi also wrote "Lion Ode", intending to compare it with the famous works of Yu Shinan. He said, "The Shangshi once read the 'Shilu' and learned that in the ninth year of the Zhenguan reign, a lion was introduced to the Western Regions. The secretary and supervisor, Yu Shinan, presented a poem, which was beautiful in history. It was said that Yu Gong was knowledgeable and knowledgeable, and sincerity was important. He was elegant and charming, or not his expertise. If he wanted to refine his body, he wrote a poem about it." During the Tianbao period of the Kaiyuan era, the poet Yan Suihou wrote the 'Shizhi Shi Fu': 'There are strange beasts from the Western Regions, which are famous both in ancient and modern times. Because of the stone carvings made by craftsmen, they were not captured by Yu Luozhi.' Yan Fu also indirectly proves that the lion sculpture art image in people's minds at that time mainly came from the carving and painting of artists. The poet Zhang Zhihe of the mid Tang Dynasty wrote the poem "Yao Zhuo", which recorded that "the Yao Zhuo (Phoenix) clan came from the east, and the Su Ni clan (Lion) came from the Western Regions and encountered the wilderness of China. They competed with each other and talked about the battle through sound, and the outcome was determined. The great literary figure of the Northern Song Dynasty, Su Shi, praised the lion painted by the Southern Dynasty painter Lu Tanwei: "Raise his eyes, look up his nose, spread his beard and spit out his tongue to show his teeth. Dance his feet, look in front of his ears, and look left and right to see the tail with joy. Although fierce and harmonious, he set up a high hall to protect the swallows. Cry and wander the hundred ghosts, sighing and marveling at the ancient land." Song Hongmai's "Rongzhai Essays" also recorded another famous lion line by Su Shi: "Suddenly heard the roar of the lion in the east of the river, the staff fell on the palm of the hand, feeling bewildered." This sentence is the origin of the idiom "the roar of the lion in the east of the river.

As a local religion, Taoism worships various beasts such as the Azure Dragon, White Tiger, Vermilion Bird, and Xuanwu (turtle or turtle snake). During the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, influenced by various concepts, lions began to appear in Taoist related content. The Ten Continents Record, which was written during the Wei and Jin dynasties and regarded as a Taoist scripture by later generations, records: "Ju Ku Zhou is located in the land of Shenwei in the Western Sea... There are many true immortal and spiritual officials on top, countless palace gates, and lions guarding against evil, chiseled teeth of heavenly deer with long teeth, and beasts with bronze heads and iron foreheads." The Song Dynasty's "Seven Treasures of Cloud Collection" records that Taiyi rescued the suffering Heavenly Zun by "sitting on the seat of a five colored lotus flower, hanging in two small lotus flowers, with nine five colored lions under it, holding his seat together. He exhales flames from his mouth and surrounds the body of the Heavenly Zun in the flames. The auspicious lion has also entered the architecture and sculptures of Taoist temples. Located in Qingyang District, Chengdu, the famous Taoist temple Qingyang Palace, formerly known as Yuanzhongguan, was built in an unknown year. It was expanded in the third year of the Tang Dynasty's Zhonghe era (883 AD) and renamed Qingyang Palace. There is a pair of stone lions at the entrance of Qingyang Palace Taoist Temple. The Mixed Yuan Hall in the palace was rebuilt during the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty. The hollow carved patterns on the support arch of the hall include deer, phoenix gazing at the moon, and double lions playing with balls, which are exquisite and beautiful. There is a statue of the "Mixed Yuan Ancestor" (also known as Taishang Laojun) enshrined in the hall. The Sanqing Hall in the palace was rebuilt in the early years of the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty. The front and rear arches are carved with patterns of Liuhe Tong'er, Double Lions Playing with Balls, and flowers and plants. In the center of the main hall, there is a statue of the highest deity of Taoism, the "Sanqing". Two small stone carvings are placed inside the Sanqing Hall, with an elephant on the left and a lion on the right.

Due to the Mongol Empire's expansion across Asia and Europe, including parts of Central Asia, West Asia, and Lesser Asia where lions were still prevalent at the time, the Yuan people gained a deeper understanding of lions. During this period, the image of lions began to infiltrate the field of clothing and utensils. There are sporadic records of this in the "Yuanshi · Yufu Zhi", such as the armor of the imperial guards being "covered with shoulders, hearts, backs, and thighs, made of leather, or with tiger or lion patterns", as well as the use of plain lion heads, embroidered belts, and green curtains for the fourth and fifth grades, except for dragon and phoenix patterns. "The gate generals in the imperial guards wore" purple embroidered lion crotch, red brocade lined robes ". The Left and Right Guard Cavalry Team features "Ma Qing, (wearing) Golden Haired Lion Armor, Ke Shi" and other accessories. The lion pattern that appeared in the clothing and utensils of the Yuan Dynasty was the predecessor of the lion image on the official clothing of the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Since the Han and Wei dynasties, the decorative style of roof kissing beasts has emerged in classical Chinese architecture, and this style was basically perfected by the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties. On the roofs of large classical buildings, kissing beasts sit at both ends of the main spine. The high-level ones can be ranked up to eleven types. Taking Taihe Hall in the Forbidden City as an example, the ridge of its roof is arranged as follows: riding phoenix, dragon, phoenix, lion, Tianma, seahorse, Lion Dragon, fish (dragon head and fish body), Xiezhi (unicorn, the sign of supervision, audit and justice), bullfight and monkey with wings. Lions, as auspicious beasts, also reside among them.

Summary

The ancient Chinese lion culture, which originated from the introduction of lions into China during the Han Dynasty, has gone through the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, as well as the Sui, Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties, taking root and gradually localizing. It eventually flourished in the Ming and Qing Dynasties under the promotion of Zheng He's voyages to the West. Due to space limitations, we will introduce Zheng He's voyages to the West and the lion culture during the Ming and Qing dynasties at a later time.

In summary, the birth and development of ancient Chinese lion culture was a process of introducing and learning excellent cultural elements from abroad, transforming, enriching, and even innovating foreign cultural elements in combination with local cultural characteristics, ultimately forming a folk cultural form that combines foreign origins and local characteristics.

Speaker: Zhang Jian Speech Location: School of History, Capital Normal University Speech Time: May 2026

Zhang Jian, a second level professor and doctoral supervisor at the School of History and Culture of Sichuan University, former vice president of the China Overseas Transportation History Research Association, and consultant of the China Agricultural History Society. Mainly engaged in world history research, authored "Research on the Great Discoveries of Geography, 15th-17th Century" and "The Spread and Significance of New World Crops", and published over 200 academic papers. (Outlook New Era)